History of Management Theory Free Essays

Running Head: HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THEORY History of Management Theory Troy Thompson 5409 Foxglove Drive, Bossier City, LA 71112 318-918-7413 Troythompson98@yahoo. com MSM 500 May 21, 2010 Class Instructor: Dr. David Bouvin Ellis University Introduction People and processes are the main elements under management purview, and it is interesting to learn how managerial philosophy pertaining to these two elements has evolved from the Industrial Revolution throughout the Progression Era and into the modern workplace. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Management Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now The purpose of this paper will focus on Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management, also known as the Taylor System, and Elton Mayo’s Human Relations business models and how they relate to this managerial evolution. Both Taylor and Mayo were iconic masterminds who lit the torch of innovative management for America to progress out from days of uncontrolled process variation and unethical human treatment towards a new beginning of quality management and human respect in the workplace. The primary sources examined are Chapter 1 of Frederick Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management, and The Encylopedia of the History of American Management, Elton Mayo. Both sources will guide this paper in the direction of modern day relevancy. The Taylor System Before the Taylor System, factories during the Industrial Revolution concentrated on meeting the demand agriculture commerce from both home and abroad (Montagna, 1981). The focus was not necessarily on quality or the treatment of human labor (Montagna, 1981). Instead, the environment reflected heavy-and-go forms of process flow combined with poorly supervised labor. With his engineering mind and passion for efficiency, Taylor responded to these inadequacies and began his efforts of applying mathematics and engineering principles to eliminate unnecessary effort in operations. The Taylor System gave birth to the following management practices: Incentive-Driven work performances, Time-Motion Studies, Centralized Management, Task Specialization, and Quality Control (Taylor, 1911). All these adoptions gave rise to a new management school of thought centered around a more productive work place, which Taylor considered to be â€Å"maximum prosperity† (Taylor, 1911). Taylor firmly believed in developing â€Å"captains of industry† rather than waiting on natural-born leaders to come along (Taylor, 1911). He also recognized a need for more involvement from the supervisors in the workplace to help eliminate what he referred to as soldiering, or, laxed employee output. He said, â€Å"The 30 percent to 100 percent increase in wages which the workmen are able to earn beyond what they receive under the old type of management, coupled with the daily intimate shoulder to shoulder contact with the management, entirely removes all cause for soldiering† (Taylor, 1911). As the turn of the twentieth century neared, the progressive landscape begged for more efficient business practices (The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, line 16). This was the optimal time for the principles by which operational capacity could be measured, analyzed, streamlined, and controlled to take hold. This system then became a cornerstone on beset of the Great Depression and followed by future management theorists from then on after. One criticism of Scientific Management is that it demanded top-performance in every worker and near perfect throughput on the production line, developing into a quasi authoritarian-style form of bureaucracy. Workers were afraid to out-produce one another on the basis of peer pressure (Taylor, 1911). Taylor’s system was based on good intention, but just lacked understanding of the human side to the workplace. This left room for the work of Elton Mayo to yield fruition. Elton Mayo (Human Relations) Elton Mayo became famous through the Western Electric Company research project. The initial purpose of the project was to find ways to improve worker productivity. He and his team looked at how lighting, rest breaks, room temperature, etc. ffected worker productivity (Mayo, 2006). Through his research, he found a distinct discovery knows as the â€Å"Hawthorne Effect†, which described an increase in output by workers who perceived that they are being watched and studied somehow (Mayo, 2006). Mayo viewed the Hawthorne Effect as a symptom of a bigger issue. He then diverted from his original hypothesis of physical factors to the examination the socio-political factors. What he found was that employees valued acceptance by their peers more than anything else (Mayo, 2006). Also unique about Mayo’s observations was the paradigm-burst that employees were not motivated primarily due to compensation, but were motivated primarily due to job satisfaction; this, of course, was a stark difference in Taylor’s theory that men were motivated best when they were given wages that were commensurate with their skill level. In support of Mayoism, as his principles later became known for, I applaud his principles of human relations that captured the essence of the Progressive Era in that they advanced employee respect in the workplace. Due to his influence, business leaders began to ask the question, what can be done to make our employees happier? New policies were adopted such as exit interviews, participative problem solving, and most novel of all – human relations (Mayo, 2006). Conclusion The essence of Taylor and Mayo’s legacies are of human ingenuity applied to enhance work settings, in terms of both people and processes. The best form of both elements can be seen in today’s business strategy of continuous process improvement, which is a group effort to optimize key processes in an organization. From Six Sigma, to Gantt Charts, to Brainstorming, to Exit Interviews, it is hard to imagine a work setting without the production techniques these two management gurus inspired. For example, the Air Force has embraced a culture of innovation called Air Force Smart Operations for the 21st Century (AFSO21). Through AFSO21, Airmen are encouraged to look at the way they do business and think of ways to make their areas more efficient, more safe, energy-saving, and effective. Many Fortune 500 companies have also incorporated continuous process improvement into their business mantra as a result of business management education guided by the wisdom of Taylor and Mayo. References American Society of Quality. http://www. asq. org/learn-about-quality/history-of-quality/overview/industrial-revolution. html Mayo, G. (2006). In Encyclopedia of the History of American Management. http://www. credoreference. com. libraryproxy. cardean. edu/entry/contham/mayo_george_elton Montagna, J. (1981). The Industrial Revolution. http://www. yale. edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1981/2/81. 02. 06. x. html#c Taylor, F. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper Bros. , 1911: 5- 29. http://www. fordham. edu/halsall/mod/1911taylor. html The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers. â€Å"The Progressive Era. † Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt, ed. by Allida Black, June Hopkins, et. al. (Hyde Park, New York: Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site, 2003). http://www. nps. gov/archive/elro/glossary/progressive-era. htm How to cite History of Management Theory, Papers

Service Marketing Organization Theory

Question: Discuss about the Service Marketingfor Organization Theory. Answer: Introduction: The main purpose of this case study is to understand the relevance of QR codes in the service sector. The marketing opportunities and potential advantages of QR codes are also discussed in this study. The perceived risks associated with products for consumers on usage of QR codes with reference to service industry are also discussed in this case study. The future substitutes like AR, NFC, Google goggles or Snap tag for QR codes that can enhance business operations of service sector and customers satisfaction are also discussed in this study. The stage at which customers wanted to get enough information about the products or services they wanted to purchase or use is the significant stage for usage of QR codes in the process of consumers decision making. The knowledge related to products is key element during the consumers decision making and usage of QR codes will be significant for delivering the information according to need (Higgins et al, 2014). QR codes will be able to give enough information about products nature. The product information given by the QR codes is consistent in nature according to information search and also acts as primary method to reduce the risks during the product purchase decision by the consumers. Theories of balance scorecard and marketing mix are also most important factors that give the information related to product or services to the consumers. Balance scorecard will enable consumers about their needs related to products and also suggests appropriate initiatives to purchase the desired products (Babin and Zikmund, 2015). Marketing mix also gives consumers enough knowledge related to products or services they desired to purchase and also provides information related to all qualities of the products with information of manufacturing company as well. There are several marketing business opportunities of QR codes in service sector that helps the business to grow in efficient manner. QR codes can be linked to provide installation information. These can also provides source information related to parts or services that needs to be replaced. These also help in directing to the business operations and also help the companies in hiring professional for business. These codes are also use valuable coupons or special offers for any business to promote products or services in effective manner (Wirtz and Lovelock, 2016). These also provide feedback forms of the customers to effectively improve the quality or issue related to the products or services for the companies. The customer needs to have knowledge related to scan QR codes. The financial companies using QR codes for accessing quick information of customers to give follow up calls regarding sales. Most of the airlines companies are using QR codes as passes for digital boarding. Verizon also using QR codes at its retail stores which allows customers to participate and win smart phones. Marketing mix will help in promoting products or services at efficient locations to different customers (Hunt, 2014). The product factor of marketing mix will provide enough information related to products or services offered by the companies to customers. Ansoffs matrix can also be used for strategically developing business operations for organizations. This provides excellent marketing opportunities to develop the product in efficient manner. QR codes are important aspects in inventory management or manufacturing industry. These help in tracking more products prices and names that can include part number, serial number and other information. QR codes can also be used instead of barcodes as can encode maximum products or components. These codes can easily be read using cell phones or smart phones and not requires scanners to read information. These codes can also save or store large amount of information in terms of URLs, texts and geo coordinates (Klein, 2014). These are also cost effective and enable companies not to purchase scanners to record all inventory transactions in efficient manner. The employees of service industries prefer to use cell phones to scan OR codes as these are convenient and easier to use. These also not require smart phones to be connected with computers to operate business operations for service sector. Porters model will help the service sector in analysing their competitors and will also helps to access the factors that can enable them to achieve desired business growth of companies. Maslows theory also helps the companies to understand the customers desires and on that basis products or services are developed by the companies (Lusch and Vargo, 2014). This theory also makes the service sector to efficiently use the QR codes in order to get competitive advantage in the preset marketing conditions. There are various strategies adopted to attract customers to use QR codes to get information related to products or services. These codes offer interactivities to consumers so that can scan codes for launching advertisements on their phones that can increase potential to interact by clicking to perform several tasks to receive offers or coupons. This makes consumer connected with brand with quick access to all information related to products or services (Kim and Yoon, 2014). The customers who do not have sufficient technological knowledge have the difficulty to understand QR codes and sacking those codes is even difficult task for those customers. These codes need to be easier to san that should not require any guesswork from the consumers. The perceived response of QR can be understood with help of interactivity which includes user control, responsiveness and connectedness and immediately responds on consumers requests. Porters model will help the companies to analyse the threats or new entrants for the QR codes and will enhance business growth for companies by providing relevant information related to products and their significance for the customers. The SWOT and PESTLE analysis will also help service sector to determine risks on products associated with usage of QR codes for the consumers (Baker, 2014). These theories also provide enough business opportunities to service sector by providing quick information o customers using QR codes. There are so many cases associated with erroneous or time placement on misuse of QR codes. AR, NFC, i-Beacons, clickable paper Google goggles, or Snap Tag can be the future substitutes for QR codes that will certainly enhance operations of service sector and at the same time, also able to satisfy all needs of the customers. Snap tags are faster and can store more data than QR codes. Augment Reality (AR) overlays the entire world with content of digitalism (Waters, 2017). AR is mainly live, indirect and direct presentation of physical and real word whose elements augmented with sound, graphics, or video by the computers. Near field communication (NFC) mainly includes NFC chips and mobile devices. This helps in exchanging contact information within the two devices and easier to use. Clickable papers will help the customers to link with different links or social buttons where required information displayed as the image overlaid on the links. The swot analysis and pestle analysis tools of marketing will help the service sector to expand its business operations according to current business environment and will also successful in satisfying all needs related to quality and quantity of the products or services (Hatch and Cunliffe, 2013). The swot analysis will help service sector in analysing internal structure of business and strategies needs to improve business operations. Further, pestle analysis will analyse the external environment for service sector and will help to form strategies or develop such products that can satisfy all needs of the customers. References: Babin, B. and Zikmund, W. (2015) Exploring marketing research.USA: Cengage Learning. Baker, M. (2014) Marketing strategy and management. UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Hatch, M. and Cunliffe, A. (2013) Organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives.UK: Oxford university press. Higgins, L., Wolf, M. and Wolf, M. (2014) Technological change in the wine market? The role of QR codes and wine apps in consumer wine purchases. Wine Economics and Policy, 3(1), pp.19-27. Hunt, S. (2014) Marketing Theory: Foundations, Controversy, Strategy, and Resource-advantage Theory.UK: Routledge. Kim, E. and Yoon, N. (2014) Perceived QR code technological attributes in the smart shopping context. Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 5(4), pp.297-307. Klein, M. (2014) Contribution of QR-Codes to the Marketing Mix A Case Study. Management, 4(3A), pp.1-11. Lusch, R. and Vargo, S. (2014) The service-dominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions.UK: Routledge. Waters, J. (2017) Future alternatives to QR codes. [Online]. Available at: https://www.dummies.com/business/marketing/social-media-marketing/future-alternatives-to-qr-codes/ (Accessed: 11 April, 2017). Wirtz, J. and Lovelock, C. (2016) Services marketing: people, technology, strategy.UK: World Scientific Publishing Co Inc.

Romeo and Juliet Act 3 Scene 5 Essay Example

Romeo and Juliet: Act 3 Scene 5 Essay Juliets situation at the being of act 3 scene 5 is complicated because of the feud between the Capulets and the Montagues and the fight in scene 1 of this act. Tybalts death has led to Romeos banishment. Following the secret marriage between Romeo and Juliet they share their first night together before Romeo must go to Mantua. On the morning after their first night of marriage, it could be argued that she is loved completely by Romeo and also the nurse who always sides with Juliet. She is then forced to find her own inner strength as she is isolated from her family.In act 2 scene 2 we get the impression that Juliet is someone who is decisive and free from the prejudice of her family proving she has an independent mind. The impression is formed because she has her own views on the Montague and Capulet feud.Juliets question to Romeo is an attempt to persuade him to stay longer by saying are you leaving and its not day. The imagery associated with night and day begins to create tension because at the start, Juliet wants Romeo to stay and we know if he gets caught he will be killed. This shows he is being sensible but then they swap roles and Romeo wants to say. After hearing what Romeo has said she changes her mind and wants him to go. Our impressions of Juliet contrast here with her decisive character in earlier scenes showing she is young and doesnt know what she wants. We see her trying to grow up quickly so she becomes more independent and builds up more inner strength. The entrance of the nurse again increases the suspense in this scene because initially we dont know who it is and if Romeo is caught he will be killed. This is an important reminder to us Juliets complete trust in the nurse at this point because she is looking out in order that they dont get caught. The language Romeo and Juliet use to each other attempts to reassure each other of their continuing love which refers back to the phrase loved completely.The words Juliet uses at their parting reveals dramatic irony because when she says methinks I see thee now, thou art so low, as one dead in the bottom of a tomb because it predicts the future tragedy, Because Romeo has climbed down from the balcony into the orchard, she refers to him as dead in the bottom of a tomb, foreseeing the future. Juliet wishes that fortune may prove fickle regarding Romeo because its sent him away so she hopes it will send him back.We already know that Lady Capulet is more distant from her daughter than the nur se because when Lady Capulet wants to talk to her daughter earlier on in the story she asks the nurse to leave but then she found it hard to talk to Juliet because she doesnt know her that well and is very nervous so she calls the nurse back in. This was typical for noble ladies in those times because she would had been very young herself when she had children. Juliet was crying because Romeo had to leave but Lady Capulet though she was crying because of the death of her cousin Tybalt. She tries to talk Juliet out of her grief by saying a moderate grief, shows much of love, but excessive grief shows lack of sense.The villain in Lady Capulets opinion is Romeo because he killed her nephew. She says she would like to take vengeance upon him by sending someone to Mantua, where that same banished fugitive wretch lives and to give him poison. We can see Juliets resourcefulness when she uses clever language towards her mother in order to disguise her love for Romeo by saying she will never be satisfied until she see him-dead- is my poor hart. This is Ambiguity because her mother will think she will never be satisfied until Juliet sees him dead but what Juliet is really saying is that her heart is dead because shes not seeing Romeo. Juliets words on lines 96-102 extend the dramatic irony of associating Romeo with poison and at the same time disguising her love for him by saying if you could find to one to sell me a bottle of poison I would temper it.Lady Capulet brings news from her husband that Juliet is going to get married and Lady Capulet feels this will help cheer Juliet up. A Shakespearian audience would not have found it unusual for a 14year old girl to marry at this age especially in noble families. It was manly done as a business arrangement between families not for love. A Shakespearian audience would have still felt sympathy for Juliet but would understand more than a modern audience. This produces a forceful reaction in Juliet because she doesnt want to ma rry Paris because she is married to Romeo.Were she to get married to Paris she would be committing bigamy. In her religion if you were married to two people you would lose your soul because its a sin. She again uses clever language to disguise her love for Romeo and to prevent the marriage by saying she would rather marry Romeo. Juliet says this because Lady Capulet thinks Juliet hates Romeo more than anyone else in the whole world and she couldnt put it any more strongly that she doesnt want to marry Paris.Following the entrance of Capulet Shakespeare again uses dramatic irony in the words by which Lady Capulet sides with her husband rather than her daughter by being sarcastic. She does this by saying ay, sir, but she will none, she gives you thanks which means in modern English she wont have anything to do with it, thank you very much. When Juliet turns to her mother her words extend the dramatic irony earlier used by her mother; she unconsciously anticipates her tragic outcome. L ady Capulet, although shocked at the force her husbands anger still refuses to offer Juliet any support showing she is being deserted by everyone.Our first impressions of Capulet as a father are formed when he is first approached by Paris in act 1 scene 2 lines 9-10 and 14-19. We see him showing consideration for Juliet. This shows she was loved completely. We have also formed impressions of Capulet during the banquet when Tybalt insists that Romeo is removed. He is probably enjoying the party and doesnt want any trouble in his house, showing he likes to be in charge and likes to rule the household.He compares Juliet to a storm when he first makes his entrance believing that Juliet is crying for her dead cousin. He is also shown being authoritarian when he arranges the marriage without Juliets knowledge or consent. The word decree which means decision changes his outlook because he says have you told her our decision. Capulets tone and choice of words change dramatically as he meets Juliets refusal of his plans because he gives Juliet abusive treatment by calling her names like tallow-face and baggage. In his final threat to Juliet he says if you dont meet our decision you can beg, starve, die in the streets.In a sense Capulets conforms to a typical attitude of his day in families of the rich by wanting to make a good match for his daughter. Capulet tries to justify his choice of Paris by revealing the economic advantages this would bring. Capulets angry words to Juliet and those before his exit which were Ill not be foresworn remind us of the patriarchal stance that he wont be gone against. Juliet shows her strength of character and determination by saying if you dont delay this marriage for a month, make the bridal bed a coffin. One might not expect these words from a young girl during this abusive treatment by her farther particularly given the expectation of her family and of these times.Juliet now turns to her trust for some comfort. Up to this moment the nurse has been Juliets confidante. There are two points in the play where the nurse has been emotionally close to Juliet by acting as her confidante. One of these is where the nurse is sorting out the marriage, and she tells Romeo that if he is to marry Juliet he has to treat her write. The second time is when the nurse tells Juliet to go to Friar Lawrences cell where her husband to be will make her a happy wife.When Juliet says my husband is on earth, my faith in heaven: how shall that faith return again to earth which when brought up to date means my marriage vow is registered in heaven, and so as long as Romeo is alive, I cannot be released from it. This would remind a modern audience of the important role of religion in those times because they are criminal offences in our modern day. A Shakespearian audience would have understood this to be a terrible dilemma for Juliet because they were all religious. The nurse showed support for Juliet during the fierce argument with Capulet by sticking up for her to a point. She advises Juliet to compromise but Juliet exhibits moral superiority.The nurse then advises Juliet to marry Paris. The nurse totally betrays Juliet emotionally as her trusted confidante and both morally and spiritually as a responsibly adult by saying Romeo is a dishrag by comparison with Paris. We now she Juliets inner strength as she says you have comforted me a lot to disguise her true reaction to the nurses judgement. Juliet gives the impression that she is going to make confession and to be absolved when she tells the nurse shes going to visit Friar Lawrence. Juliets short soliloquy now reveals forceful language towards the nurse because she is being immoral by saying she should marry Paris thus committing bigamy.Juliet also accuses the nurse of hypocrisy towards Romeo because in the beginning the nurse says hes an honest gentleman, and a courageous, and a kind, and a handsome and at the end of the play she says hes nothing compared to Pari s. The idea of being deserted by everyone connects with Juliets views that the nurse is no longer her trusted confidante because Juliet says I will no longer confide my inmost secret thoughts with the nurse.The statement deserted by everyone is not true in every sense because Juliet now turns to Friar Lawrence. If there is no remedy Juliet considers killing her self which gives the scene its final dramatic irony. Our impressions of Juliet at the beginning of this scene contrast with the way in which is has stood up to her parents and rejected the nurses advise, because it seems like shes trying to make everything go her own way and so she will benefits from it. I think this because she tells Romeo at the being of the scene to stay because she doesnt want him to leave her, but she knows if hes stays and gets caught he will be killed.Now I think shes making everyone desert her by going against them. By doing this she will be benefiting because she will get to be with Romeo. Juliet now finds the strength of her decisive character in order to stand alone, despite the expectations of her family by confiding in Friar Lawrence who is outside her family. In my own opinion she didnt make the appropriate moral choice because if she and Romeo fail she will have no family to turn to.This scene has huge dramatic impact on the rest of the play, setting the scene for everything that follows. Shakespeare uses a variety of different language to put across different moods. At the start of the scene, the language and mood is very light and happy. This shows off Romeo and Juliets love for each other. Shakespeare uses the language very cleverly here, putting across the playful and happy attitude of the two and then changing it suddenly to a dark mood as Romeo leaves, because Juliet wants him back. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 3 Scene 5 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 3 Scene 5 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 3 Scene 5 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Document Based Question on Enlightenment

Document Based Question on Enlightenment Enlightenment affected the world politically and the worlds social systems so strongly that it deserves to be considered one of the top three important "turning points" in all of world history. Enlightenment brought positive influences to society in the late 1700's.Enlightenment has affected the social systems in the branches of justice, modern education, and reference. In the year 1764 the Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria wrote a book called On Crime and Punishments. He questioned the idea of the death penalty in people's minds as if to ask, it is really necessary? John Locke and Jean Rousseau discuss how enlightenment affects modern education. The ideas spread to the minds of children leading to a brighter generation. French philosophers used Enlightenment. The philosopher Voltaire used treatise on tolerance based on religion and war to show Enlightenment to. The original reference of the Encyclopedia, written in 1772, provided the middle class with the information of the new era lea ding to the spread of new thoughts everywhere.Cesare Beccaria (1738 - 1794) was one of the great...This piece of marvelous information provided politicians with the right things to do. One of the political changes it made was to the Russian empire. Empress Catherine II of Russia, was an "Enlightened Despot", meaning she followed the government way of Enlightenment.Enlightenment was not only taken in a positive way but was also taken in any abusive way, since people misunderstand the positive factors of Enlightenment and misinterpreted against it. One misinterpretation of Enlightenment were two 20th century Historians which violated it by stating that the "light" did not light up all of the world or even all the western world.In conclusion, the ideas of Enlightenment took a positive part in everyone's lives. This enabled to people to have a better thought process today, which is used wisely in most circumstances.

Entry Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Entry Strategy - Essay Example The economic and political factors are inter-related and it becomes difficult to identify only the economic or only the political factors separately (Altinay, 2005). The micro-environment is the internal environment which comprises of the corporate goals and objectives, the corporate strengths and weaknesses and the service factors. In addition to these, the location is equally important (Ekeledo & Sivakumar, 1998). Zhao and Decker (2004) contend that size of the firm, the technology transfer if required, the cultural distance, the market size, risks and uncertainties, sectoral barriers, and the international experience also influence the entry strategy. Taking these factors into account, the market entry strategy for ABC in India and Ireland would be recommended.   While market entry is generally through exports, licensing, joint venture or opening of wholly owned subsidiaries, in the hospitality sector the mode of entry is different. In this sector direct ownership or any form of equity partnership is not preferred in countries with high economic or political risks, and of the level of economic development is low (Altinay, 2005). If the risks are high entry modes with low resource commitment is preferred. Franchising and management contracts are the most preferred modes of entry in the hotel sector in international expansion. In both these formats capital-intensive assets and knowledge-based assets can be separated.  Service firms may enter foreign markets using a variety of modes but control is the most vital factor.

Maritime Technology 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Maritime Technology 1 - Essay Example This physical quantity has been associated with randomness by Boltzmann who believes that in a confined system, the disorder that is produced is actually entropy. On the other hand, Shannon considers positive information that is produced in message transmission as entropy. Conversely, there is one more interpretation given to the term which is very much opposite to the former. Brillouin associates entropy with deficiency of information. This can also be stated as uncertainty and doubt and something which cannot be predicted. Ignorance is also one part of the mentioned interpretation of Brillouin. In addition, finally, there are some authors and theorists who consider freedom as entropy; freedom to evolve from one state to the other (Brissaud, pp. 69-70, 2005). Entropy is, basically, a fundamental and core value of modern physics that could be easily linked with different areas like metaphysics, biology and even economy. For these reasons, every interpretation and explanation of the t erm has its own importance in these diverse fields and they should be made to use in order to learn more about the phenomenon. Let the paper analyse each interpretation separately. When they say that entropy is the disorder, it means that when heat is produced in a closed system, the molecules gas molecules would, automatically, move randomly in any position. This would create more work and energy in the system than the energy which was initially present. This chaos and disrupt is termed as entropy. Moreover, considering the second and third interpretations, the lack of information, actually, refers to uncertainty and indefiniteness. An outsider can never predict where and how the gas molecules would spread when heat energy is produced in a closed system. This tendency of not being able to predict the present and future positions of molecules makes entropy associated with uncertainty and lack of information. However, for the same closed system, considering it from the inside, the mo vement and change is actually an information which is referred to as positive and beneficial adding up to the knowledge. Likewise, the gas molecules have maximum freedom to move rapidly in whatever directions, which increases with time (Brissaud, pp. 70, 2005). However, many theorists and authors disagree with the association of entropy with disorder. These theorists claim that the agitation is more a result of temperature than of entropy as a whole. This confusion exists because of the reason that all these three quantities and values are closely in connection with each other. Heat, temperature, and entropy have so close relations that the source of disorder and agitation is not observable clearly and precisely. When defined accurately, temperature, according to the modern and classical thermodynamics, is the value given to the molecular agitation that happens after heat is produced in a closed area. Furthermore, heat is termed as the disordered energy creating the chaos. Therefore , these three core principles in thermodynamics are closely linked with one another and are the source of the concepts of agitation and disorder that are associated with entropy (Brissaud, pp. 82, 2005). Thus, temperature is the real phenomenon associated to chaos and disorder since low temperature systems are always said to under order and less agitated. This is the reasons theorists disagree with that interpretation. Heat production and the

An Essay on the Magna Carta

An Essay on the Magna Carta The Magna Carta is widely considered to be one of the most important documents of all time, and is seen as being fundamental to how law and justice is viewed in countries all over the world. Prior to the Magna Carta being created there was no standing limit on royal authority in England. This meant that the King could exploit his power in whatever way he saw fit, as he was not subject to any laws[1]. This paper will examine the Magna Carta, the reasons for its creation, its impact on England and whether it fulfilled its purpose or not. I will be making the argument as to why it has gone above and beyond its original intentions and has over time paved the way for liberty. The most important part of the Magna Carta is clause 39, and is as follows â€Å"No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or striped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled. Nor will we proceed with force against him. Except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land. To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice[2].† Now given at the time this wasn’t considered particularly important but over time it became interpreted as guaranteeing individual rights and liberty. This has also been exported into other nation’s constitutions, particularly Western countries namely the United States in the form of the Bill of Rights. The Magna Carta finds its roots in early 13th century England under the rule of King John. Traditionally considered to be a ruthless, authoritarian king[3], John had a myriad of issues facing England when he took the throne and it seems that much of the resentment towards him is unwarranted. It is worth noting that England was practically bankrupt due to John’s brother, King Richard incurring exuberant costs from going on Crusade and later ransom from captivity at the hands of the Holy Roman Empire[4]. After Richards’s death due to injuries sustained while fighting in France, King John faced adversity from the French and English nobility who had supported John’s nephew the young Arthur of Brittany. When Arthur was killed in an altercation while under the custody of John, many implicated John in the killing. Soon afterward the French attacked and took Normandy from English hands[5]. As a result of this John began to raise taxes to build an army to re-take Normandy . The end result of the war was disastrous, the English army was left in ruin and country had all but run out of money. Upon returning to England King John was faced with rebellion from his barons and found that he had very few allies left. In 1215 these baronial rebels forced King John to sign the Magna Carta[6], literally meaning the â€Å"Great Charter[7]†. These 25 barons sought to outline the unwritten customs that had in effect governed the country for centuries and put them into written law that would have to be observed by the king. Now at the time of its inception the charter wasn’t meant to be a principle of law that would apply to everyone, it was simply a way that the ruling elite of the time, the barons could put some limits to the king’s power. The charter itself was really the product of difficult back and forth negotiations between King Johns government and the barons, both really wanting to avoid civil war and trying to find a compromise. The en shrinement into law of feudal custom and the operation of the legal system, one which even the king would have to abide by was the driving force behind most of the clauses. Once brought into law it was made clear that certain aspects were to be made more important and are considered to be the main reason why the barons wanted such legislation in the first place. The biggest issue was the oppressive taxation that King John imposed to fight against the French. Despite making significant advancements in the revenue system within England there had been a general sense of growing discontent with the arbitrary way the royalty imposed heavy taxes. In truth there was little John could do given how the coffers had been drained from his aforementioned brother and from his father, Henry II’s forays into France[8]. As such it isn’t very surprising that more periods of high taxation was all that was needed to incite the barons to revolt and force John into signing. The charter made it clear that the monarchy would have to follow some set of rules regarding taxation and other customs according to the nobles. These included the protection of the English church, the special significance of London and the rights accompanying its status. Others are concerned with family law, transportation across England and what I see as being the most important the clauses dealing with justice. Again I will refer back to clause 39 which is interpreted today as being concerned with what is known as habeas corpus. The immediate impact of this clause was not felt by a great many people, for at the time it was of course intended for those of high privilege. As such at the time it was more of a settlement between the royal head of state and England’s most powerful families. The barons wanted a kind of safeguard against a reckless king having seen far to much of what can happen when one spends with abandon as many kings before John had, while not wanting to go so far as to repl ace the king himself. The Magna Carta itself was in a rather precarious situation as only weeks after being signed by King John it was denounced by pope Innocent III as having been forced on the king[9], and John was happy to agree and renounce it as well. This lead to the barons inviting the French king, Philip to invade and take the crown. A civil war ensued and the fate of the charter was in question. The rebellion ended with the death of King John in 1216, this left the throne to his son 9 year old Henry III. The nobles agreed that young Henry should be the one to take the throne, as despite being the son of the king whom they had despised, they weren’t about to abandon the lines of succession with regard to heredity. The Magna Carta was reaffirmed by Henry with the key focus being on a good reliable government led by the king. Eventually Henry began to deviate from the guidelines the charter had laid out for him and once again the barons went into open rebellion. The reb ellion was put down but only on the condition that the king would adhere to the charter once again. This is important as it set a precedent by which other English kings could not simply ignore the Magna Carta and do as they pleased, out of risking open rebellion. The charter comes in prominence again with the reign of Henry III’s son, Edward I. Once again frustration mounted over the heavy tax burden the king set upon the country and Edward had to admit that he was in fact bound by the Magna Carta, thus giving concession to the nobles. By this time the charter had become prominent enough that certain clauses pertaining to individual liberty were become common practice. As free men in England could enjoy the rights set forth in the Magna Carta. The structure of the charter is as such that it has an open-ended nature allowing for small tweaks and revisions at times when it is warranted. Over time we see events of great importance in England with the Magna Carta being the backbone of the movements. This is apparent with attempts to limit the royal powers of kings following Edward I. It isn’t until the late 14th century do we see however the charter being used in such an all-encompassing way. Under King Edward III the Magna Carta was proclaimed to be the law of the land and that no other law present or future could challenge it. We also see the first instances of the Magna Carta affecting general law, including the expansion of clause 39 making it in effect the due process that all men would be condition to if subject to the justice system. It is around this time that we see the gradual shift from the charter serving only the purpose of giving power to the nobles against the crown, to a general defense of human liberty in England. This can only be seen as a good thing as until this time the charter by and large only served the privileged few. The common people were subject to mistreatment at the hands of those in power in England for a very long time, the idea that they now have rights was an entirely new concept but one that gradually began to take hold, as the Magna Carta was reinterpreted. When taking into account the Magna Carta the role the English church played is one of great import[10]. It is explicitly stated in the charter that the church be given full freedom and unimpaired liberty, the fact that this is mentioned long before any mention of liberties for the freemen of England is important to take into account[11]. Of course it is hard to say that King John considered these clauses a concession, as the church already possessed many liberties given their unique position within England. The church had an expectation that they could practice their spiritual tasks without interference from the king. Society in this period had many dependencies on the church and as such it made sense for the king to observe the freedoms the church enjoyed rather than infringe upon them and threaten the peace that the church held in the kingdom. King John seemed to regard the freedom of the church as something of paramount import in England, even deferring to the pope on several occa sions. The evolution of the Magna Carta can also be attributed to the privileged status of the church itself. The type of freedom that those within the church enjoyed was outlined in the charter and a connection was made between this and the clauses dealing with the freemen, or the individual. This is important because without the church there would simply be no precedent for liberty in England. The Magna Carta then can be seen as a very important step towards liberty, especially considering the time when it was written. Its evolution from a document which was originally intended to force King John to consult the nobility on issues pertaining to taxes and justice in the realm, to the cornerstone of individual liberty is of great importance. The novel view that a king should be respectful of the rights of the nobility and church would be extrapolated into one in which all people regardless of birthright would be protected by law. As such I would say that yes the Magna Carta has indeed served its purpose and then some. Its continuing influence can be seen even today, enshrined in constitutions all over the western world[12]. The gradual shift in England towards individual rights and movement of government towards democracy can be attributed to the Magna Carta. As because individuals gained more rights including the common people this lead to the rise in the democratic process, including the creation of the English parliament where commoners could participate in government. Looking back however on its inception it is hard to say that the barons really had a specific goal in mind with the Magna Carta’s creation. The extent to which King John was an evil, tyrannical king seem to have been blown way out of proportion, given the circumstances I don’t see how he could have changed much of what he did during his reign. The idea that the barons were these visionaries thinking well ahead of their time is laughable, and seems more likely that they were simply distrustful of King Johns rule and were looking out for their own short-term interests. That is not to say of course that there weren’t some good ideals enshrined within the charter as it is apparent that there were, only that the majority of what was actually included seemed to be a result of various motivations on the part of upset barons. One of the most important aspects of the Magna Carta, and its most enduring is the idea of due process. Now granted due process and the subsequent trial by jury were not of any great importance to the barons at the time of the charters writing, although given the framework it is hard not to say that a few of them weren’t thinking ahead of what may become of it. This malleable framework provided just what subsequent generations needed to reinterpret certain clauses within the charter and make them take on a more general meaning apply to a much larger spectrum. The effects of continued reinterpretations have been profound on western society, first in the form of Habeas Corpus which served to strengthen what due process had already given the general populace. The point being that after Magna Carta and all its various iterations people had a series of natural rights and liberty by law, these influences have helped shape constitutions and how countries are governed today. [1] Jenkins, â€Å"A Short History of England,† 65 72 [2] â€Å"Magna Carta 1215† [3] Warren â€Å"King John† 174 181 [4] Jenkins â€Å"A Short History of England† 65 72 [5] Warren â€Å"King John† 76 93 [6] â€Å"Roger of Wendover:Runneymede 1215† last modified June 1997 [7] DanzigerGillingham â€Å"1215 The Year of Magna Carta† 255 277 [8] Jenkins â€Å"A Short History of England† 57 65 [9] Thorne E. Samuel et al â€Å"The Great Charter† 16 17 [10] DanzigerGillingham â€Å"1215 The Year of Magna Carta† 137 153 [11] â€Å"Magna Carta† 1215 [12] Hindley â€Å"The Book of Magna Carta† 193 201